Federal Reserve Bank of New York — "Who Is Paying for the 2025 U.S. Tariffs?" (Liberty Street Economics, February 2026).
Found that nearly 90% of the 2025 tariff burden fell on U.S. firms and consumers (pass-through of about 94% early in 2025, easing to about 86% by November), and that the average U.S. tariff rate rose from roughly 2.6% to about 13% over 2025.